Technology-Related Best Practices

The Media Debate*

*I realize I did not need to write a summary on this article.

     The idea of the media debate was started by Richard Clark and Robert Kozma in the early nineties.  Granted the nineties were quite different than current times, the ideas each person presented remain valid.  

     Richard Clark had the opinion that he could give or take media and that media is not necessary to have learning take place.  His concern was cost-effectiveness.  If you can get the same lesson accomplished without the costs, then media was not necessary.

     Robert Kozma, on the other hand, felt that there were certain aspects of learning where media was effective.  "The assumption is that learning with media is a complementary process within which a learner and a medium interact to expand or refine the learner's mental model of a particular phenomenon." (Kozma's Arguments)

     Another debater, DSchneider, felt that media was sometimes needed since "cognition is not only in the head."  DSchneider had the opinion that media is a part of learning and it should not be taken away or else it would change the learning outcomes.  Also, a variety of media could be implemented into "most instructional design methods" based on precise instructional goals.  

     My opinion is that:

1.  Media (technology) takes the time element away from researching.  It is no longer looking an article up in the green Reader's Guides to find out what newspaper/magazine has a copy of a certain article, then only to find out that the library where you are does not have that particular issue.  Nowadays, we save time by Googling it.

2.  With the extra time comes extra learning (unless there is a full-capacity mode for your brain).

3.  Extra practice on media saves time creating handmade media, such as flashcards.

Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media

     The abstract of this article states, "consistent evidence is found for the generalization that there are no learning benefits to be gained from employing any specific medium to deliver instruction. (p.445)  The method of instruction plays a direct role in learning.  Methods, such as "structure, shorter steps, reduced verbal loads, and self-pacing" (p.449) are examples of successful instruction.  As a former math teacher and a mom, I have guided my students and my own kids into understanding processes rather than relying on a calculator.  How can students be sure if the answer that appears on the screen is correct or remotely correct?    As a young girl working in my dad's store, I was taught to count back change to customers for a couple reasons.  First, it showed the customer that he was not being cheated; second, it was a sure way that my drawer would remain balanced.  This helped me learn simple math and be able to determine mathematical outcomes.  No computer needed to do those things.
     According to this article, "there is evidence in these meta-analyses that it is the method of instruction that leads more directly and powerfully to learning."  (p.449)  "The increased attention paid by students sometimes results in increased effort or persistence, which yields achievement gains.  If they are due to a novelty effect, these gains tends to diminish as students become more familiar with the new medium."  (p.450)  I believe this is saying that it is up to students' efforts or persistence that will lead to success.  However, using technology and other forms of media can become stale, thus a decrease in learning.
     Learning, in my opinion, does not require technology.  However, it can help instruction if learning comes from both text/verbal and technology.  Dissemination of information can be enforced through various forms of media.  For example, media can enhance some lessons by showing and narrating an in-depth video of a frog dissection in science.  There could even be an interactive portion, but it does not take the place of actually dissecting the frog.  Senses are what turn media into reality.  The smell of the formaldehyde and the slimy touch of the frog are things one cannot experience from the computer-generated lessons.

Learning with Media

       (Just a side note....There have been many changes technologically since this article was written.  For example, computers have become more portable and tablets have taken the place of some laptops.  There has been an increase of people reading text from these devices, contrary to the article stating that "characteristics such as size, shape, and weight makes it more likely that a student will learn with a book while on a bus but not a computer."  (p.2)) 

     This article was written in response to Richard Clark's "Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media" in which Robert Kozma regards media as being influential in the way learners use it and in the way they process information.  He also believes that using more than one medium can have a positive and/or different impact for certain students.

     Clark believes that ".....media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition." (p.1)  In other words, it does not quite matter how the information gets to students; it is important that the content arrives.

     Kozma's article speaks of various methods of comprehending text and the stability of the symbol system.  There is the usual way in which people read from left to right at a certain pace. Some people may need to revert to previous words or phrases for meanings.  Other people may either slow down their reading paces or listen to an audio version of someone reading the text aloud.  If people choose to listen, the text is read at a slower pace which allows a couple seconds for people to store the information they hear into their memories.  These two ways of comprehension do not appear to be very different.  I see an advantage with the reading it yourself because you can take as much time as you would like to revisit words or phrases that you would like.  It may be possible to rewind an audio taping, but it may not stop at the exact place(s) you need, thus allowing a bit more confusion.

      In addition to learning by text alone, there is also the idea that combining text and pictures results in increased recall, especially when the picture illustrates the text precisely.  Depending upon the background of the learners, they could prompt prior knowledge or refer to it often as they are reading less-known material.

     Television represents a different type of learning since the objects or symbols are moving and there is an auditory accompaniment.  There are several factors that enable and disable attention to the television.  The first is the different types of voices:  male, female, adult, child, laughing, sound effects, etc.  The next factor is how the camera shows the moving objects:  special effects, zoom, lots of activity, etc.   The television studies "suggest that the perceptions students have about a medium and purposes they have for viewing influenced the amount of effort that they put into the processing of the message and, consequently, the depth of their understanding of the story."  (p.13)  Also, since television presents both auditory and visual senses together, they may work together increasing comprehension or each sense may have limits, thus limiting comprehension.  I believe the first thought, but the scenes and narration on the screen must engage a person's interest in order to be successful.

     Audio and video can be taken to another level by adding an interactive element.  A technology group from Vanderbilt University created interactive video and concluded that "its dynamic, visual and spatial characteristics allow students to more easily form rich mental models of the problem situation."  (p.23)  

     According to this article, Kozma believes that Clark needs to rethink his ideas that "media do not influence learning under any condition" (p.28) and that Clark's position must be changed.  Clark's contention that if learning outcomes vary, it is due to how something is taught and not by the medium used.  On the other hand, Kozma believes that media is needed to complement learning.

     Technology blows my mind by what it can do and how much it can do.  However, in my opinion, I tend to agree with Clark that students can learn without media and regardless of when Clark's ideas formed,  the hype of technology has played an integral role in all of society.  With that said, it is impossible to roll backwards in any media form and because it plays an engaging role in schools today, it is important to keep moving forward.  I cannot fathom a day without my technology, nor can my kids.  There are times when my kids are using the computer without realizing they are actually learning.  It is truly amazing! 

Redefining Equity:  Meaningful Uses of Technology in Learning Environments

      "Equitable access is necessary but not sufficient in of itself to ensure comparable benefits from using digital technologies."  (p.1)  Everyone should have access to and knowledge of technology.  However, it is how a person uses the technology that is in question and this is part of the definition of equity.  Using technology meaningfully means that a user exhibits three aspects:  "....motivation to produce content that is personally meaningful to them, activities that motivate the user to explore new ways of expression through the technology, and incorporation of the support systems for the student within their learning environment.

     The constructionist learning theory holds that students who actively design and create projects are acquiring new knowledge while becoming more engaged in learning.  Further growth is apparent as the learner becomes fully engaged when the community becomes involved.  In other words, students learn even more with recognition.  The one thing that could hold students back is the lack of technology in any sense:  not having any, outdated, teachers not up-to-speed, etc.  Granted people can use public technology at libraries or other community centers, it is important to have learning opportunities available.  There are computer Clubhouses in underprivileged areas where students can go after school to learn technology and design projects.  "Within the Clubhouse, there is fluidity between the roles of mentor and learner." (p.3)  Everyone there is there for the same purpose and that is why the roles can be compatible and on the same level.

     The Clubhouse sounds like a great idea where people can learn from each other with updated technology.  My questions are in the areas of having sufficient space and technology availability and in the funding.  I realize this is an article of information regarding the Clubhouse opportunity and not to get into logistics.      

   Thinking Technology

     This article claims that constructivism is how one creates their own reality based on their experiences.  It sounds like the K-W-L to me.  In other words, learners state what they Know first, then what they Want to learn.  They take their own knowledge and add to it based on past experiences and knowledge.  Finally, they state what they have Learned.  People's outcomes may differ slightly based on their initial experiences.  Also, constructivists focus on new outcomes and not recreating or reproducing what is already known or experienced.  Constructivists base their outcomes on real-world problems and issues.

     Although it is unlikely that constructivism will become a true form of instruction, there is a belief that there can be guidelines set that resemble this idea. "Constructivists emphasize the design of learning environments rather than instructional sequences." (p.35)  This sounds similar to the idea of Montessori.

     My personal idea of instruction is like the theme song from "Facts of Life," "You take the good, you take the bad, you take them both and there you have the facts of life."  In other words, there are many successful learning systems around the world and there are some that are not so good.  Pick and choose what works best.  I appreciate the constructivist's viewpoint and I agree that one should always look and act ahead.

How does the Clark/Kozma debate interact with the suggestion that constructivism underlies best practices in educational technology?  

Clark and Kozma are both strong advocates of education and both are forward thinkers, just as constructivism is.  However, one main difference it seems, is that Clark is more about instruction and not necessarily with the media available in today's society.  Kozma, on the other hand, cares more about creating learning environments where learners can utilize their knowledge and experiences by using a variety of media which is more on the lines of constructivism.

How do these ideas overlap and support one another, or how do they differ and contradict?  

I think Clark may be open to using technology, but just as a supplement to learning and not as the main source.  Kozma appears to want to use media in any way he can.

In addition, how does the way we as educators decide to use technology make it more or less equitable? 

The way educators decide to use technology to make it more equitable is by using forms of media to which kids can relate.  For example videos, interactive technology, text, etc. are familiar to students today.  (I am thinking of the district where I taught and the majority, if not all, is familiar with at least the basics of technology.  I would guess that most students own at least one device in their families.)  In order to make it more equitable, I think it would be worth a try to have students bring their own devices to school to use and allow the ones who cannot or will not bring in their own device, to use the school's chromebooks.  This is a far cry from the time when cell phones would be taken if ringers went off or if students appeared to be texting.  (It is even further from passing handwritten notes when the teacher was not watching.)